1. Biography

Lysimachus, son of Agathocles, was born in Macedonia, but his origin was from an aristocratic family of Thessaly. His father was a close friend of Phillip II, whereas he had become a citizen of Pella and belonged to the bodyguards of Alexander III the Great.¹

Lysimachus took four wives. Around 320 BC he married Nicaea, daughter of Antipatros and widow of Perdiccas. They had three or four children: his beloved son Agathocles, Arsinoe I, Eurydice and most probably another daughter. In 311 BC he asked for the hand of Cleopatra, sister of Alexander the Great, who, however, refused. In 302 BC he married Amastrida from Herakleia of Pontus, daughter of Oxyartes, niece of Darius and ex wife of Crateros, with which he did not have any offspring.² Not many things are known about Lysimachus’ third wedding apart from the fact that his wife was from Odrysia and that they had a son, Alexander. Around 299 BC he divorced Amastrida and married Arsinoe II Philadelphos, daughter of Ptolemy I and his second wife Berenice and sister of Ptolemy II Philadephos, with which he had three sons.³

2. Establishment of Lysimachus

After the death of Alexander in 323 BC Lysimachus was given the supervision of Thrace. When the First War of the Successors broke out two years later, he took the side of Antipatros, Crateros and Antigonus I One-Eyed against Perdikkas and Eumenes. The assassination of Perdikkas, the death of Crateros and the successful efforts of Eumenes led to a compromised control over the unpleasant situation created in Alexander’s empire. The agreement between the Successors was signed in Triparadeisos of Northern Syria in 321/320 BC and resulted in strengthening the position of Antipatros, as well as the position of Antigonus. Lysimachus improved further his relations with Antipatros by taking his daughter Nicaea as a wife.⁴

After the victory of Antigonus I against Eumenes, which marked his control over Asia, the Second War of the Successors broke out. In 315 BC Lysimachus along with Cassander and Ptolemy I turned against Antigonus to stop his expansion towards Macedonia. The war lasted until 311 BC, when Antigonus signed a peace treaty keeping his rights over Asia Minor.⁵

In 305/304 BC Lysimachus, following the example of Antigonus, Ptolemy, Cassandros and Seleucus, adopted the title of “basileus” (king).⁶ The war which had started between Antigonus and the rest of the Successors ended in 301 BC with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, where Antigonus was defeated and lost his life. During the redistribution of the dominions of Alexander’s empire Lysimachus was mostly favoured, adding to his dominion the regions Antigonus once held in Asia Minor until the mountains of Taurus.⁷

In 297 BC, after Cassandros’ death, conflicts broke out in Macedonia between his sons for the succession to the throne. This gave Lysimachus, Demetrius I Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, and to Pyrrhus of Epirus the opportunity to engage and face each other for the conquest of the kingdom. Lysimachus offered shelter to Cassandros’ son Antipatros I, when he was exiled by Pyrrhus and probably then he gave him as a wife his daughter Eurydice. Some time later, however, he murdered him and also imprisoned his own daughter.⁸

During this entire period (297-288 BC) he was in constant conflict with Demetrios, who, having obtained the throne of Macedonia, was trying to take advantage of the difficulties Lysimachus had with the Getes of Dromichetes and to invade Thrace.⁹ Lysimachus reacted by allying with Pyrrhus and both invaded Macedonia and drove Demetrios out, who, however, managed to escape and started gathering military forces to invade Asia Minor. Lysimachus then made an alliance with Seleucus, Pyrrhus and Ptolemy I to stop him. Demetrios passed to Asia Minor, but was defeated by Lysimachus’ son Agathocles, in 286 BC, and sought refuge to the regions of Seleucus, where he was imprisoned. In 285/284 BC Lysimachus on his part drove Pyrrhus out of Macedonia and extended his kingdom up to Thessaly.¹⁰

3. Lysimachus’ end

In approximately forty years and without any special achievements, at least before Ipsus, Lysimachus systematically established his power initially over Thrace and then over Phrygia on the Hellespont, Macedonia and the entire Asia Minor. In 309 BC he founded the capital of his state, Lysimacheia on the European side of the Hellespont.

In 286 BC he was at the peak of his power. The tension between him and Seleucus, already existing since the years after Ipsus, became more intense. The latter did not hesitate to take advantage of an internal quarrel of the house of Lysimachus and the consequences it had to the cities of Asia Minor and invaded the region.

More specifically, in 283/282 BC Lysimachus suspected his son Agathocles for a conspiracy against him, condemned and executed him. According to sources, Agathocles was the victim of a plot of Lysimachus’ wife Arsinoe II; it is assumed that she was afraid for her life and for the fortune of her children when the time of succession would come. Agathocles’ wife Lyssandra, daughter of Ptolemy I from his first wife Eurydice, sought refuge to Seleucus I Nikator asking for revenge. Some cities of Asia Minor who were friendly towards Agathocles, like Pergamon, mutinied and turned to Seleucus asking for his intervention. The two men confronted each other at Korypedion, in Western Asia Minor, in 281 BC. In the battle which took place Lysimachus was killed. His body was transported to Thrace and he was buried near Lysimacheia.¹¹

4. Numismatic policy

Lysimachus apparently did not mint any coins before the battle of Ipsus, apart from a series of tetrovola (four obols), which was minted in Lysimacheia. After the annexation of Asia Minor he continued minting drachmas with the types and the name of Alexander III in Lysimacheia, Lampsacus, Abydus, Teos, Colophon and Magnesia. Around 299-296 BC the same cities started minting drachmas with the royal title of Lysimachus (ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΛΥΣΙΜΑΧΟΥ).

In 297/296 BC he introduced new coins of the Athenian measuring regulation, the so-called “lysimachoi”. Their obverse bears the head of the deified Alexander and their reverseAthena as Victory. In contrast to Demetrios I and Ptolemy I, Lysimachus avoided putting his portrait on his coins; he, however, maintained his name and title on the reverse. These coins were minted in many cities of his dominion, such as Lysimacheia, Lampsakos, Abydus, Sardeis and Colophon. To these Ephesus and Miletus were added after 294 BC, Amphipolis in 288 BC, Smyrna in 287 BC and Pella in 285 BC.¹² Lysimachus’ death at Korypedion did not stop the production of coins with his types and name. The lysimachoi were minted during the entire 3rd century BC from various mints, with that of Byzantium being the most important one. They were so popular, as the post-mortem mints of Alexander, a coin politically neutral and acceptable to the entire Hellenistic world.¹³

5. The cities of Asia Minor

The general attitude of Lysimachus towards the cities of Asia Minor does not present any novelty. He basically adopted the policy of Cassandros and of Antigonus I. There are no clear indications that he was any stricter than Antigonus I or Demetrius I. Cities were practically subjects and not allies of every ruler.

Lysimachus controlled the Ionian League through one of his generals. He imposed taxes to every productive activity and supported tyrannical regimes in Samos, Herakleia of Pontus and maybe in Priene, Ilion and Nisyros.¹⁴

Lysimachus continued building, and in some cases completed, settlements which were started by Antigonus I, like in Smyrna, where he moved the inhabitants of the surrounding settlements to the urban centre founding New Smyrna.¹⁵ A characteristic of his policy was the change of the name of cities. Thus, he changed the name of Antigoneia Bithyniake to Nicaea, of Ephesus to Arsinoeia and of Smyrna to Eurydiceia. The new names in the last two cases did not live after his death. Nicaea, however, kept her new name and developed into an important centre of the Hellenistic and Roman world. Lysimachus did not found important cities with the exception of his capital Lysimacheia in Thrace. The foundation of this city resulted in turning the city of Kardia, the inhabitants of which he moved to Lysimacheia, into a village.¹⁶

6. Ephesus

In 302 BC, during the campaign in Asia Minor, Lysimachus’ general Prepelaos conquered Adramyttion, Teos, Colophon and Ephesus, a very important nautical base of the Antigonids.¹⁷ Lysimachus annihilated the city’s garrison and destroyed its fleet. Although Ephesus resisted, it did not suffer any economical ratification, like other cities which lost their privilege of not paying any tax. Theoretically it remained free and maintained the tax-free regime of the temple of Artemis.¹⁸ A few months later, however, it was conquered by Demetrios I.

In 294 BC the city, like Priene, passed once again under the control of Lysimachus, who decided to re-establish it.¹⁹ The city was moved closer to the sea and her population was strengthened with inhabitants from other cities, like Colophon and Lebedus. The process of re-establishing Ephesus was completed in 289/288 BC. The city developed into a great merchant centre and possibly operated as one of the seats of Lysimachus in Asia.²⁰ During Demetrios’ campaign in Asia Minor in 286/285 BC it was conquered by his general Ainetos. Later, however, with the aid of pirates, the general of Lysimachus, Lykos, reconquered the city.²¹

With the new name Arsinoeia Ephesus appears in inscriptions and mints coins.²² Although the name did not survive Lysimachus’ death, apparently the favourable policy he followed concerning the city was maintained in the conscience of the inhabitants, as one can judge by the revival of his cult during the Imperial era.²³